Challenges+to+the+Superpower+Hegemony+2


 * ====== Western Europe, Fr. politicians sought to free nation from superpower dominance by transferring Europe into indep. strategic bloc. ======
 * ======Soviet tanks crushed Rebels efforts to leave Soviet sphere of influence======
 * ====== US and Soviets suffered serious political and military setbacks that signaled decline of superpower hegemony ======

France under de Gaulle

 * ====== Wanted Europe to be 3rd force in world affairs ======
 * ====== Believed France would never regain power status it once was ======
 * ====== 1963 French rejected partial nuclear test ban treaty: signed by GB, Soviet Union, US, recognized by China ======
 * ====== Focus of Fr. policy was disengagement from US-dominated NATO and development of indep. nuclear strike force ======
 * ======1964 Fr. detonated first atomic bomb in Sahara======
 * ======4 yrs later Fr. put together nuclear delivery system: failed to convince rest of Europe to leave US protection======
 * ======1969 Gaulle leaves office======

Tito's Yugoslavia

 * ====== 1st opposition from in communist world from Yugoslavia ======
 * ====== Postwar regime came to power w/o USSR help ======
 * ======Josip Broz aka Marshal Tito (1892-1980) ruled Yugoslavia from 1945-1980 (his death)======
 * ======1948 Stalin expelled Yugoslavia from Soviet bloc======
 * ======Maintained good relations w/ E. European communist states as well as neutral states======

De-Stalinization

 * ====== 1953 communist leaders start to question Stalin's methods used when in power ======
 * ====== Nikita Khrushchev, Stalin's successor, denounced enthusiastically 1956-1964 Gov. control eased and political enemies released======
 * Started De-Stalinization by taking down Stalin statues, rewriting textbooks to deflate Stalin's reputation, renaming places, etc.
 * Most vigorous speech in secret in 1956 at party conference
 * ======USSR spurred other communist leaders to experiment w/ domestic reforms and seek indep. from USSR dominance======
 * ======USSR spurred other communist leaders to experiment w/ domestic reforms and seek indep. from USSR dominance======

Hungarian Challenge

 * ====== 1956 most serious challenge to USSR control in E. Europe from nationalist minded communists in Hungary ======
 * ======Hungary citizens demanded democracy while embracing De-Stalinization process======
 * ======Fall 1956 Soviet tanks enter Budapest to crush uprising======

Prague Spring

 * ====== 12 yrs after Hungarian tragedy USSR intervene in Czechoslovakia======
 * ======1968 communist party leader Alexander Dubcek launched democratic socialist revolution Czechs moving towards liberal communism concerned USSR b/c could lead to unraveling of USSR control======
 * Supported Prague Spring (liberal movement)
 * Promised citizens socialism w/ human face
 * ======USSR army aided by other countries (E. Germ, Bulgarian, Polish) defeated Prague Spring======
 * ======Brezhnev Doctrine- reserved right to invade any socialist country deemed threatened by external or internal elements======

PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC of CHINA

 * ====== China's civil war resumed when Japan surrendered in 1945 ======
 * ====== Nationalist and communist fought for territories once held by Japanese ======
 * ====== mid 1948 communist favored ======
 * ====== nationalist under Jiang Jieshi fled to Taiwan ======
 * ======October 1, 1949 Mao Zedong chairman of Chinese communist party established peoples republic of China ======
 * ====== 1954- formation of new political institution anchored in a new constitution======
 * ======1951 campaigns signaled out and persecuted (execution or labor camps) the people affiliated with nationalist======

Social and Economic Transformations

 * ======1955 China introduced their own five year plan inspired by the Soviet Union======
 * ======reforms challenged and often eliminated family traditions======
 * ======supported women's rights'======
 * introduced marriage law that eliminated child or forced marriages, women equal average to divorce, and legalized abortion
 * foot binding became less and less popular

Fraternal Cooperation

 * ======Moscow and Beijing drew closer because of their common enemy (U.S)======
 * ======most concerning Japan, South Korea, Taiwan built as capitalist governments======
 * ======1950's Beijing recognized Moscow's undisputed authority in world of communism for Russian military equipment and economic aid======
 * ======Soviet Diplomat's then instigated for the UN to transfer China's security counsel seat from Taiwan to mainland communist gov======

Cracks in the Alliance

 * ======by mid- 50's USSR was China's principle trading partner purchasing half of Chinese exports======
 * ======China's opinion soviet aid programs far to modest with too many strings attached1955 USSR supplied for economic aid to Egypt and India which were none communist======
 * for example soviet military aid to China during Korean conflict had to be repaid in full when China was in need of capital
 * ======1950 China and India disagreement over Tibet with anti-border clashes======
 * ======Moscow announced neutrality but gave massive loan to India======
 * ======Border clashes between Chinese and Soviets in Siberia also created tensions======
 * ======1964 tensions between China and USSR became public======
 * ======Nikita pursued policy of peaceful coexistence with west Europe and U.S. because feared nuclear attack======
 * ======Chinese government accused Soviets of being Revisionists======
 * ======Soviets accused China of being dangerous left wing adventurous======
 * ======Soviets accused China of being dangerous left wing adventurous======

DETENTE and the DECLINE of SUPERPOWER INFLUENCE

 * ====== USSR and US leaders began adjusting to reality of unimaginable world ======
 * ====== 1960s leaders of USSR and US agreed to policy of Detente- reduction in hostility ======
 * Tried to slow competition in developing countries
 * Didn't resolve competition between superpowers, but relaxed Cold War tensions

An Era of Cooperation

 * ====== 1972-1974 US and USSR signed agreements calling for cooperation in areas: health research, environmental protection, science and tech., space ventures, and expanded cultural exchange programs ======
 * ====== Detente most visible in negotiations that posed threats by strategic nuclear weapons======

Demise of Detente

 * ======1981 US would sell weapons to Chinese military which undermined USSR cooperation w/ US======
 * ======Action doomed recent SALT (Strategic Arms Limitations Talks) agreement======
 * ======Era of Detente reflected significant transformation of superpower relations======
 * ======Coincided w/ marked decline in superpower influence as well======

US Defeat in Vietnam

 * ======Early part of Cold War globalization US extended aid to non-communist Vietnamese in South after Fr. was defeated======
 * ======Until 1968 500K+ US troops served in-country in defense of S. Vietnamese democracy======
 * ======Massive bombing unleashed in N. Vietnam======
 * ======War protests in US signal public distancing from Cold War policy======
 * ======1968 Nixon pledged to end war======
 * ======after election implemented strategy to turn war over to south Vietnamese by escalating conflict also resumed bombings of north Vietnam======
 * ======during this time opened diplomatic channels opened to soviet union in China hoping to get them to pressure North Vietnam to negotiate======
 * ======January 1973 war ended with paris peace accords======
 * ======with Paris Peace accords signed by Br,Fr, USSR, US, N. Viet., National Liberation Front, S. Viet.======
 * ======war did not come to an end within two years agreements were torn up and N, Viet, and NFL continued their desire to conquer south S. Viet.======
 * ======achieving it in 1975 and unification in 1976======

Soviet Setbacks in Afghanistan

 * ======Afghanistan was neutral until 1978 when pro-soviet fomented civil war======
 * ======left party people democratic party of Afghanistan (PDPA) introduced radical reforms and education land and family law causing severe back lash======
 * ======many religious and ethnic leaders rejected and PDPA resulted to brute forces======
 * ======by summer of 1979 rebels controlled majority of countryside resulting in the Soviet Union intervening installing Marxists, Babrack Carmal, as president======
 * ======9 years soviets fought unsuccessful war against Afghan Mujahideen or islamic warriors======
 * ======U.S. provided weapons and money======
 * ======CIA supplied decisive weapons in the war======
 * ======1986 soviets replaced Carmal with Muhammad Najibullah, who was just as unpopular======
 * ======seize fire negotiated by UN in 1988======
 * ======soviets fully withdraw in 1989======
 * ======1992 Civil war broke out anyway======
 * ======1994 Taliban set out mission to unify Afghan lands======
 * ======1996 captured capital Kabul, executed Najibullah, and proclaimed islamic state of Afghanistan======
 * ======wars in Vietnam and afghanistan undermined prestige of superpowers and exposed hollowness of their claims to military superiority======

Countercultural Protests

 * ======Gaulle Brezhnev and Nixon worked to modify international relations and citizens worldwide were agitated for the abolition of Cold War systems======
 * ======1964 criticism of Cold War influenced Hollywood films======
 * ex. "Doctor Strangelove or: How I learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb" by Stanley Kubrick

Rock 'n Roll

 * ======Global youth experienced empowerment during these years. Accounted for worldwide popularity born in postwar era======
 * ======Elvis Presley: 1935-1977 Beatles and Stones: 1960s known as British Invasion======
 * ======1960s-1970s underscored political radicalism of youth from nation's leaders======

Watergate

 * ======Nixon became victim of societal discontentment because of Cold WarWatergate scandal 1972-1974 exposed by journalist and congressman added to tentions======
 * bombing and invading Cambodia
 * ======Nixon ordered wiretaps on reporters and staff members with phones because of upsetting leaks to New York Times about unauthorized Cambodia bombs======
 * ======those actions culminated into series of criminal acts by Nixon White House hitting its peak at the scandal break in and the democratic national headquarters (at Watergate building) during 1972 elections======
 * ======thieves were caught======
 * ======Nixon and staff attempted to cover up crimes committed on the presidents behave======
 * ======media and congressional investigations lead to Nixon's resignation in August 1974======
 * ======media and congressional investigations lead to Nixon's resignation in August 1974======