Americas+and+Oceania+2

=Americas/Oceania: chapters 6 and 21= Chapter 6

Early Societies in The Americas and Oceania


 * 1) The Mayans sacrificed royal blood to the Gods, because they believed the Gods had spilled their blood to water the earth and nourish crops


 * Men cut their penises and women cut their tongues or face
 * They believed their sacrifices would bring bountiful harvests and rain


 * 1) Migration took place during the Ice Age when glaciers locked up the earths water


 * Land Bridged became exposed, linking Siberia to Alaska, Australia to New Guinea, and Indonesia to Asia
 * When temperatures rose and the glaciers melted, the Land Bridges were covered with water
 * Beginning in 3000 BCE coastal peoples of South Asia made large vessels to sail to the Pacific Islands
 * People regularly interacted within the Americas and Oceania
 * Their societies resembled those in the Eastern Hemisphere


 * 1) Agriculture brought settlements, increased populations, political authorities, long distance trade, religion and hierarchal social orders.

Early societies of Mesoamerica

The Olmecs __ Early Agriculture in Mesopotamia __ __ Ceremonial Centers __ __ Olmecs: The “Rubber People” __ __ Olmec Society __ __ Trade in Jade and Obsidian __ Heirs of the Olmecs: The Maya In about 100 CE, human population grew, cities developed, trade networks were established, written language and knowledge developed __ The Maya __ __ Tikal __ __ Maya Warfare __ __ Chichen Itza __ __ The Maya Decline __ Maya Society and Religion __ The Maya Calendar __ __ Maya Writing __ __ Maya Religious Thought __ __ Bloodletting Rituals __ __ The Maya Ball Game __
 * 1) The first migration form Siberia to Alaska took place around 13,000 BCE
 * Migrants crossed land bridges or traveled by watercraft
 * 1) The earliest human inhabitants of the Americas were hunters and gatherers
 * By 7500 BCE, many species of large game were nearly extinct from over exploitation and dramatic warming of the climate
 * People turned to fishing and small game, and agriculture, resulting in a rise of complex societies in the Americas
 * 1) By 7000 to 8000 BCE the peoples of Mesoamerica had begun to experiment with cultivation of beans, gourds, avocados and chili peppers
 * By 4000 BCE they discovered maize, which soon became the staple food of the region
 * By 2000 BCE agriculture had spread through Mesoamerica
 * 1) Agriculture consisted of cultivated crops but not as many animals
 * Domesticated turkeys, bark-less dogs,
 * Mesopotamians were unable to harness animal energy (meaning; they carried goods on their own backs and prepared fields themselves)
 * Had no wheeled vehicles
 * Palaces, temples, and pyramids arose alongside agricultural villages
 * Permanent residents in these buildings were the elites, priests, and few artisans or crafts people
 * People gathered at the ceremonial centers for markets or rituals, then they returned home
 * 1) Name comes from Rubber Trees that are in the region of the Olmecs
 * 2) Earliest Ceremonial centers appeared on the Gulf of Mexico, near present day Veracruz
 * 3) Region received a lot of rainfall
 * No need for irrigation
 * Had elaborate drainage system to divert excess water
 * 1) Authoritarian Society (ex. No input from citizens)
 * Thousands of laborers built the ceremonial centers, pyramids, and statues
 * Common peoples gave harvests to the elites living in the ceremonial centers
 * Laborers made colossal human heads out of basalt rock (some were 10 feet tall and made in the likeness of rulers!)
 * 1) Spread their influence by Military force and by trade
 * 2) Had no metal technology
 * 3) Imported Jade and made ornaments, made obsidian into very sharp knives and axes
 * Traded ornaments made of obsidian, jade or basalt
 * 1) Little is known about rise and fall of Olmecs
 * Destroyed ceremonial centers
 * Statues broken, monuments defaced, buildings burned down
 * Most likely they destroyed their own civilization because of civil conflicts or doubts of legitimacy of the elites
 * About 400 BCE the civilization fell
 * 1) Other Civilizations adopted Olmec Traditions
 * Cultivated maize, had temple pyramids, maintained a calendar, adopted ball game
 * 1) Fertile soil and good conditions for agriculture
 * Near modern day Belize, Cozumel, El Salvador, Honduras
 * 1) Kaminaljuyu [[image:http://www.yucatan-revealed.com/image-files/yucatan-map.jpg width="457" height="369" align="right" link="http://www.google.com/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&frm=1&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&docid=sTLkVL9Fr9lE-M&tbnid=rHQcmHRG-aQ8DM:&ved=0CAUQjRw&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.yucatan-revealed.com%2FArcharological-Sites-Palenque.html&ei=vWEcUbLeMYnl0gGsw4DIBg&bvm=bv.42452523,d.dmQ&psig=AFQjCNHfjzu34a_C0qte2KcfR8b_xF-l8A&ust=1360900914027947"]]
 * Ceremonial center
 * 15,000 laborers built its temples
 * Traded with areas as far as Mexico
 * Fell under economic and political dominance to Teotihuacan
 * 1) Tikal was at its peak between 600 and 800 CE
 * 2) Population > 40,000
 * 3) Temple of the Giant Jaguar was 154 feet tall and represented Tikal’s control over the region
 * Kings had names like Smoking Frog and Stormy Sky
 * Maya kingdoms fought constantly
 * The victor kept the people they defeated as captives and displayed them as trophies or took their belongings
 * Most captives were sacrificed to Gods or enslaved
 * High ranking captives were publically tortured
 * Absorbed captives and integrated them into society rather than killing or torturing them
 * Some people embraced the opportunity and some chose to be killed
 * By 800 CE most Mayans were deserting their cities
 * Possibly because of: epidemics, natural disasters, civil wars, or bad water control
 * Chichen Itza was still flourishing
 * Long distance trade with Mexico halted
 * 1) Social order
 * Kings and Ruling families > calendar and elaborate writing, knew of eclipses and planetary cycles, understood the concept of zero, figured a solar year was 365.242 days
 * Priests who had elaborate calendars and knowledge of writing, astronomy, and math
 * Hereditary nobility owned most of the land and helped organize militaries
 * Merchants in ruling and noble classes
 * Architects and sculptors
 * Artisans and craftspeople
 * Slaves
 * 1) Most complex calendars of ancient Americas
 * 2) Two kinds of years
 * Solar year for agricultural cycle (365 days)
 * Ritual year for Daily affairs (260 days, 20 months & 13 days)
 * Believed each day derived characteristics from Ritual and Solar calendar determined what would happen in that day
 * 1) Had both ideographic and syllabic symbols
 * Wrote of history and poetry, logic, myth, and astronomy
 * Written on temples and monuments
 * Spanish Missionaries in 16th century burned all books in order to diminish other religious beliefs
 * 1) Popol Vun > Creation myth that said gods had created humans out of maize and water that turned into flesh and blood
 * Reflects their dependence on agriculture
 * Priests taught that Gods kept agriculture cycles going in exchange for human sacrifices
 * 1) Believed shed of human blood encouraged gods to bring rainwater for crops
 * Some rituals performed on captives
 * Did not sacrifice blood to inflict pain, only to give to Gods
 * 1) Adopted a ball game from Olmecs
 * 2) Two men against eachother, sometimes on teams of two or four
 * 3) Objects of game:
 * Put hard rubber ball through ring or onto a marker [[image:http://clevergames.files.wordpress.com/2009/07/mesoamerican-ball-game1.jpg?w=300&h=202 width="300" height="202" align="right" caption="Mesoamerican-ball-game"]]
 * Players may not use their hands
 * Losers were tortured and sacrificed
 * 1) Ball was heavy and hard, could easily cause concussions
 * 2) Trophies of fallen men’s heads were on the side of the playing field

Heirs of the Olmecs: Teotihuacan
__The city of Teotihuacan__ __The Society of Teotihuacan__ __Cultural Traditions__ __Decline of TeotiHAWKan__
 * Earliest settlers in the valley of Mexico did not build extensive __#|irrigation systems__, but they did channel water from the mountains
 * Earliest center of this society was the large city of Teotihuacan
 * Located about 31miles Northeast from modern day Mexico City
 * Large agricultural village by 500 B.C.E
 * Most prominent monuments were built in 100 C.E, The pyramids of the Sun and the Moon
 * Sun pyramid is the single largest structure in Mesoamerica, nearly as big as the Khufu pyramid in Egypt (area wise, but is half as tall)
 * between 400-600 C.E it had 200,000 people
 * Built temples, neighborhoods with small __#|apartments__, busy markets, and hundreds of workshops for Artisans/Craftsmen
 * Priests were viewed as deities and as a crucial role to the survival of the society (Since they took track of the calander and good harvest seasons)
 * 2/3 of the population worked in the fields during the day
 * consisted of cultivators, artisans, and merchants
 * Famous for their Obsidian tools and orange pottery
 * Not until 500 C.E was there evidence of military orginization
 * played a ball game
 * adapted Olmec calander
 * expanded Olmecs graphic symbols into a complete system of writing (stone carving)
 * recognized gods of Earth and Rain
 * human sacrifices during their religious rituals
 * experienced increasing military pressure from other peoples
 * middle 8th century invaders took over their city and destroyed its books and monuments leaving the city in ruins

Early Andean Society and the ChavÎn cult
__The Chavin Cult__
 * In about 12,000 B.C.E early peoples from Central America crossed a narrow isthmus into South America
 * Andean society was the modern region of Peru and Bolivia
 * did not have good communication between regions
 * mesoamerica cultivated maize that spread to Andean region while Andean's gold, silver, and copper spread to mesoamerica
 * cultivated beans, peanuts, and sweet potatoes
 * 1800 B.C.E began to fashion distinctive styles of pottery and build temples/pyramids
 * Came and went in a short period of time between 900 B.C.E to about 300 B.C.E.
 * maize was an important crop that supported a large population and in return served as a stimulus for the emergence of the cult to promote fertility and harvests
 * produced stone carvings of deities with human and animal features and also became very skilled with textile techniques
 * early cities did not have an established state or any organized political power

Early Andean states: Mochica
__ The Mochica state __ Early Societies in Australia and New Guinea __Austronesian people__
 * Arose on the western side of the mountains and coordinated irrigation systems so that the lower valley could support agriculture
 * each region high/low contributed its own products to the __#|larger__ economy
 * relied heavily on arms to introduce __#|order__ and maintain stability in their small realms
 * did not have writing but a system of __#|painting__ depicting its society (people, gods, demons, warriors, merchants)
 * was not the only large state dominating the central Andean region during the first millennium
 * Andes mountains caused challenges that ancient technology and social organization could not overcome
 * yet Andean society was more developed than Mesoamerican soceity
 * Human migrants used watercraft about 60,000 Years ago to enter Australia and New Guinea
 * low sea levels of that time made it easier to migrate
 * Southeast Asia visited the northern coast of new guinea looking for trade and also settlement
 * 10,000 years ago sea levels rose and the frequent migration stopped
 * Australia stuck to hunting and gathering while New Guinea turned to agriculutre
 * Australia ate a variety of 141 different species of plants and 45 different kinds of seeds/nuts while creating 124 different types of medicines from pants
 * Possessed remarkable seafaring skills
 * used winds, currents, stars, cloud formations, and other natural indicators to navigate
 * brought yams, taros, pigs, and chickens to the island to cultivate and herd
 * techniques spread throughout much of the land bringing grown and specialization of labor

The peopling of the specific Islands
__Austronesian migrations to Polynesia__ __The Lapita peoples__ __Chiefly Political Organizations__
 * possessed sophisticated maritime technology as well as agricultural expertise
 * canoes enables them to sail safely large distances of open sea
 * arrived in Vanuatu, Fiji, and Tongu/Samoa in that order from 1500 B.C.E- 1000 B.C.E
 * established settlements in Tahiti and that soon launched venture to all over Polynesia (Hawaii, easter islands, and New Zealand)
 * later went to regions of Micronesia and Madagascar
 * Earliest Austronesian migrants that sailed into the Pacific Ocean and established settlements on the Pacific islands
 * maintained communication and an exchange network from New guinea to Sanoa/Tonga
 * cultivated yams, taro, breadfruit, and bananas
 * killed off the large land animals and birds
 * decorated their pottery in geometric designs
 * traded pottery, obsidian, shell jewelry, stone tools, feathers, food, and spouses
 * first millennium B.C.E. Lapita and Austronesian peoples established hierarchical chiefdom on the pacific islands
 * chiefs got: portions of their subjects lands, foods delivered of their choice, owned their own districts, led public rituals, and oversaw irrigation systems that were crucial to the society
 * Soon chiefly classes became too powerful
 * || Americas ||
 * 13,000 B.C.E || Human migration to North America and from Siberia ||
 * 8000 - 7000 B.C.E || Origins of Agriculture in Mesoamerica ||
 * 4000 B.C.E || Origins of Maize cultivation in Mesamerica ||
 * 3000 B.C.E || Origins of agriculture in South America ||
 * 1200 - 100 B.C.E || Olmec Society ||
 * 1000-300 B.C.E || Chavin cult ||
 * 200 B.C.E - 750 C.E || Teotihuacan society ||
 * 300 - 1100 C.E || Maya society ||
 * 300 - 700 C.E || Mochia society ||
 * || Oceania ||
 * 60,000 B.C.E || Human Migration to Australia and New Guinea ||
 * 3000 B.C.E || Origins of agriculture in New guinea ||
 * 3000 B.C.E || Austronesian migrations to New Guinea ||
 * 1500 - 500 B.C.E || Lapita society ||
 * 1500 B.C.E - 700 C.E || Austronesian migrations to Pacific islands ||

= Worlds Apart: The Americas and Oceania BS =
 * 1519 small spanish army came in search of gold and found much more
 * Tenochititlan is in the water of lake Texcoco
 * connected to the surrounding land by three broad causeways
 * the palace of Tenochtitlan has many large rooms filled with lots of armory and weapons
 * their zoos had eagles, hawks, parrots, jaquars, wolves, and much more
 * Bernal Biaz (won of the spanish soldiers) thought the most impressive signs were their markets and temples
 * markets- big, variety of foods, slaves, gold, gems, feathers, and many good to functions
 * markets compared to the ones of Rome and Constatinople
 * temples- a site for rituls involving human sacrifices, fresh blood covered sacrificial alters, interior rooms filled with scrifiicial victimes, and had a strong stench and all the blood turned the floors black
 * trade enabled a complex society while sacrificial rituals pleased the gods and persuaded them to keep the world going

- Trade between Eastern and Western hemispheres BS
= States and Empires in MesoAmerica and North America BS =
 * Americas had only sporadic dealing with contempories across the oceans
 * Scandinavian seafarers had a short lived colony in Newfoundland and occasional ships from Europe and West Africa
 * before 1492 interaction between the interaction between the two were very rare
 * 1000 to 1500 CE North and South Americans organized empires, created religions, and built trade networks
 * Australia and Pacific islands had sporadic trading with people outside of the Oceania
 * Asian trade stretched to some of Australia but not the more distant parts
 * 8th century- great wealth accumulated in teotihuacan (largest early city in MesoAmerica)
 * the attacks on Teotihuacan opened a long era of militarization in Mesoamerica and lead to the decline of Teotihuacan
 * Spanish forces conquered regions in the 16th century

-The Toltecs and the Mexica BS
__Toltecs__ __Tula__ __The Mexica__ __Tenochtitlan__ __The Aztec Empire__ __Tribute and Trade__
 * with emergence of Toltecs later Mexica much of central mexico came under unified law
 * toltecs migrated to
 * this corner of the valley of Mexico had little rainfall and thin soil
 * tapped water out of the river of Tula to irrigate crops of maize, beans, etc.
 * large and powerful army
 * built compact regional empire and forstress far to the midwest to protect themselves from nomadic invadors
 * wealthy city
 * center of weaving, pottery, and obsidian
 * Toltecs kept close relationshipa of with socieities on the Gulf Coast and Maya Yucaton
 * conflicts within empire between different ethnic groups
 * 1175- civil conflict and nomadic incursion destroyed the toltec state
 * evidence shows around the same time that a fire destroyed much of Tula
 * migrants drawn to central Mexico from northwestern regions (referred to as Aztecs)
 * Aztec derives from Aztian- "the place of the seven legendary caves"
 * 13th century arrived in Mexico
 * reputation for kidnapping women and seizing land from others
 * neighbors would force them to move
 * 1345 Mexica settled on islands of Lake Texcoco and founded the city that would become their capital
 * //Chihampa// system of agriculture- when they dredged the rich and fertile muck from the bottom of the lakes and built it up into small plots of land
 * chihampa were so fertile sometimes they were able to harvest seven crops per year
 * during the dry season they would have to tap water from canals
 * Mexica became very powerful in the early 15th century
 * conquered the city Oaxaca in Southwestern Mexico and cities of high plateaus between Tenochtitlan and the Culf Coast
 * mid-15th century joined forces with Texcoco and Tiacopan
 * helped guide the Aztec Empire
 * Mexica and allies recieved food crops, manufactured items, jewelry, and knives from the nearby people
 * ruling elites entrusted some of the tribute items to officially recognized merchants who then exchanged them for local products from distant lands
 * Aztecs had no elaborate burearcracy or administration
 * no permanent standing army

-Mexica Society BS
__Social Structure__ __Warriors__ __Mexica Women__ __Priests__ __Cultivators and Slaves__ __Artisans and Merchants__
 * most military elite came from the Mexica aristocracy
 * men of noble birth received most instruction and training
 * accomplished warriors received extensive land grants
 * most successful filled government position
 * ate the best food and luxury
 * sumptuary laws required commoners to wear coarse
 * did not hold officials positions
 * society prodded them towards motherhood and homemaking
 * women who died in childbirth won the same fame as warriors who died in battle
 * received a special education in calendrical and ritual lore
 * influences as advisers to Mexica rulers
 * bulk of Mexica population was commoners know as //calpulli//
 * calpulli- clan or groups of families claiming descent from common ancestors
 * cultivators delivered periodic tribute payments to state agents who distrbuted a portion of what they collected to the elite classes and stored the remainder in state granaries and warehouses
 * most slaves were Mexica
 * family members sometimes sold younger members into servitude while others were forced into slavery because of criminal behavoir
 * skilled artisans destined for consumption by the elite
 * merchants specializing in long-distance trade had an important but somewhat more tenuous position in Mexica society
 * warriors took wealth and goods from the merchants who lacked powerful protectors

-Mexica Religion BS
__Mexica Gods__
 * migrated to mexico
 * already spoke the Nahuatl language
 * Mexica soon adopted other cultural and religious traditions
 * Mesoamerican people would plat a ball game in formal courts which the Mexica adopted
 * Mesoamericans maintained a complicated calendar based on a solar year 365 days and ritual year of 260 which the Mexica adopted as well

__Ritual Bloodletting__ __Huitzilopochtli__
 * Texcatipoca- "the Smoking Mirror"- giver and taker of life and patron deity of warriors
 * Quetzalcoatl- "the Feathered Serpent"- supported arts, crafts, and agriculture
 * knew by various names
 * believed that their gods had set the world in motion through acts of individual sacrifice
 * the Mexica honored their deities through sacrificial bloodletting
 * mexica priests performed acts of self-sacrifice
 * showed the desired to keep their agricultural society going
 * Mexica priests presided over the sacrificial killing of human victims
 * Mexica enthusiasm for sacrifice folllowed from their devotion to the god Huitzilopochtli
 * was Mexica warriors patron deity
 * priests of Huitzilopochtli's cult demanded sacrificial victims to keep the war god appeased
 * victims- mexica criminals or tribute members from neiboring peoples or rank warriors captured from battlefield
 * believed blood from victims helped bring moisture to the earth and helped the community with cultivating crops

-Peoples and Societies of the North BS

 * many north americans depended on hunting, fishing, and collecting edible plants

__Pueblo and Navajo Societies__ __Iroquois Peoples__ __Mound-Building Peoples__ __Cahokia__ __Trade__
 * tapped river waters to irrigate ctops of maize which was 80 percent of their diet
 * periodically went through drought and famine because of the dry environment
 * 700 CE constructed permanent stone and adobe buildings
 * Agricultural society in the woodlands east of the Mississippi River
 * cultivated maize and beans
 * lived in settled communities surrounded with wooden palisades that served as protective walls
 * women were in charge of Iroquois village and longhouses and supervised cultivation of fields
 * men took responsibilities for affairs beyond village
 * structures of the woodlands
 * dotted the coutryside throught the eastern half of North America
 * used mounds sometimes as stages for ceremonies and rituals
 * largest surviving structure in the western hemispher is a mound at Cahoki near east St. Louis
 * only the sun in Teotihuacan and the temple of Quetzalcoati in Cholula were larger
 * network of rivers faciliated travel and trade by canoe in the eastern half of North America

= States and Empires in South America =
 * no script of writing before the arrival of Spanish invadors

The coming of the Incas CHUCHITO CHIMU The Inca Empire Quipu and Inca Administrations Cuzco Inca Roads Inca Society and Religion Trade Ruling Elites Aristocrats and Priest Peasants Inca God The Societies of Oceania The Nomadic Foragers of Australia TRADE Cultural and Religious Traditions The Development of Pacific Island Societies Trade between Groups Long distance voyaging Population Growth Development of Social Classes Formation of Chiefly States Polynesian Religion > || >> 950-1150 > || >> 1175 > || >> 1250 > || >> 1345 > || >> 1400 > || >> 1428-1440 > || >> 1438-1471 > || >> 1440-1469 > || >> 1502-1520 > || >> 1519 > >> Oceania > || 11th cent. || Beginning of population growth in Pacific islands || > || 12th cent || Beginning of two-way voyages between hawai'i and Tahitit and the Marquesas isl. || > || 13th cent || Emergence fo distict social classes and chiefly states || > || 14th cent || construction of fishponds in Hawai'i ||
 * After dispersing of chavin and Moche, frequently clashing autonomous regional states ruled public affairs
 * One kingdom in the 12cent.= Chucito
 * Lived in highlands of lake Titicaca (modern Peru & Bolivia) [[image:http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Inca-expansion.png/220px-Inca-expansion.png width="166" height="244" align="right"]]
 * Cultivated potatoes (staple food in highlands, like maize elsewhere) and domesticated llama and alpaca (only big domesticated animal in Americas before 16th cent.)
 * === Also had maize, tomatoes, and green veggies. pepper, chilies, and guinea pig ===
 * === Llama provided wool, hides, dung for fuel ===
 * === Received maize and coca (chewed as stimulant and enhance stamina in thin air) from lower valleys ===
 * Lived in lowlands of 10thcent. Dominated 900km of Peruvian cost
 * Irrigation systems watered abundant maize & sweet potatoes
 * Had wealth and social classes
 * Capt. Chanchan, popt. 50-100, > had large brick buildings to mobilize lots of people or resources & blocks belonging to specific clans to coordinate affairs
 * Regional states kept peace until Incas dominated the kingdoms
 * Incas > originally small kingdom in Cuzco valley, broadened to cover all how spoke Quechua or under Inca rule
 * Settled at lake Titicaca in mid 13th cent. Around 1438 ruler Pachacuti (1438-1471) expands their rule
 * First took S+N highlands then costal Chimu (surrendered when Incas controlled their water supply)
 * By 15th cent. Controlled 4,000km from Quito- Santiago (Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia exc.)
 * Amazon Rain Forest and Pacific Ocean limited expansion
 * Controlled over 11.5 mil people and largest state
 * Military and administrative elite
 * not enough Incas to overwhelm subjects
 * encouraged subjects by taking hostages from ruling classes and forcing them to live in capital
 * also sent loyal people to rebelling lands and provided them with goods to watch over the people
 * armies forced rebels to distant corners of Inca land
 * administration rested with large class of bureaucrats [[image:http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Inca_Quipu.jpg/350px-Inca_Quipu.jpg width="252" height="193" align="right"]]
 * lacking script, used Quipu, ( array of small cords of different length and color and numerous knots
 * Recorded info on population, state property, taxed, labor services communities owed to the gov.
 * also recorded Incas history, rulers and deeds
 * Capital Cuzco pop. 100k-300k, administrative, religious and ceremonial center
 * Prominent resident: Inca rulers and nobility, high priest of various cults, hostages living under supervision with other families.
 * elaborate roads aloud for communication on vast empire and fast dispatch of armies
 * two roads run North-south, covered 16,ooo km
 * paved with stone, shaded in trees, wide enough for 8 horsemen
 * system of official runners to spread news, spread Quechua language and sun cult
 * not many merchants or artisans, lots of local bartering between food and handcrafts
 * long-distance trade was under gov. control, organized food, textile, pottery, jewelry, and crafts
 * not permitted to become independent merchants which stunted the growth of large class of skilled artisans 
 * pottery, textile, and tools for local consumption of fine goods for ruling, priestly and aristocratic classes
 * main classes rulers, aristocrats, & cultivators
 * Inca rulers were believed to be Gods (absolute rulers) later mummified and consulted on state policy
 * On certain celebrations they adorned mummified rulers with clothes, jewelry and food to maintain relations
 * God-kings supervised bureaucrats, mostly aristocrats who allocated plots of land for commoners cultivate on behalf of the state
 * Led privileged lives, better food and clothes
 * Could wear large ear spools which extended their lobes
 * Big influence in their education and overseeing of religious rituals
 * Big temples had hundreds of priest, slaves and virgin attendant women
 * Cultivators lived in Ayllu, similar to mexicas Calpulli, small villages to big towns
 * Several families worked together and shared land, tools, animals, crops
 * Instead of tax they worked on state land which went to elite classes or state storehouses for time of famine & orphans /widows
 * Men provided heavy labor on roads/buildings exc. Women delivered textiles/potter exc.
 * Quipu used to keep track of labor and services owed
 * Sun is major deity (Inti), also recognized stars and naturals forces [[image:http://iconoclasticdomina.files.wordpress.com/2010/06/inca03.gif width="274" height="236" align="right"]]
 * Ruler Pachacuti and others followed Viracocha, creator of men and the universe,
 * Inti wan most worshiped, sacrifices to all gods of agriculture of animals ( not people)
 * Taught strong morals, sin-violation of social/natural order, life after death would be good or bad depending of earthy life, sin would bring disaster on person and community
 * Had confession and penance so priest could absolve you of your sins
 * Didn’t interact frequently with others, but built their own societies
 * Aborigines of Aust. Traded over vast stretches of continent between hunting/gathering societies
 * In far N, traded sporadically with new Guinea & islands of SE Asia
 * Pacific Ocean had complex agr. Societies
 * In 16th cent. Had big population, Hierarchical social order & hereditary rulers
 * In central and W pacific, regular sailing between islands & trade networks
 * Occasional dealing with American and Asians people
 * Life didn’t alter much for aborigines continued hunting and gathering until Europeans came in 19th & 20th cent.
 * New Guinea herd swine and cultivate roots in 5000 BCE and Torres strait people gardened right after
 * Frequently meet neighboring groups and societies and traded surplus food & small items
 * Goods went from small group to group rather than people traveling these routs
 * Goods include oyster shells ( popular) stone exe heads, spears, boomerangs, furs, skins & fibers ( not much food trade)
 * 1) N Aust. Traded with islands with spears & shells for flowers, stone clubs, trinkets and very coveted iron axes
 * Didn’t diffuse out of regional societies
 * Stories and myths involved geographic features ( rocks, mountains, forest, water)
 * Religious observances to insure continuing supplies
 * In the early cent. c.e migrants had agr. Societies in most all the island groups of the pacific ocean
 * Middle of the 1st millennia they were in New Zealand-last large habitual region to receive humans
 * After 1000ce Polynesians in the larger island had a pop. Surge which prompted social and political change
 * In Central& W pacific mariners like close islands
 * Exchanged axes, potter, shells, decorative and foodstuffs
 * Helped ruling elites establish and maintain peaceful relations
 * Tonga, Samoa and Fiji traded and intermarried creating political and social relationships
 * Regular trade not didn’t happen in E pacific
 * Took lengthy trips on intermittent basis, with big results
 * Ex. Spread of sweet potato
 * From Easter island (300 ce) went to S America and learned of potato, between 400-700ce spread through Polynesia and beyond to New Zealand where it became a staple
 * Social change in Hawaiian Islands from trade with Tahiti in 12th – 13th cent.
 * Survives in oral traditions & introduce new chief/priest line, fishhook styles, and language
 * Pacific islanders cultivated taro, yams, sweet potatoes, bananas, breadfruit, coconuts and kept pigs/dogs and fish
 * In 14th cent. Hawaii pop. Increased, made fish ponds allowing mature fish to swim in from ocean to enclosure providing abundant fish
 * Agri/fishing made pop. Growth in Samoa, Tonga, society island, & Hawai’i (most pop.500k)
 * Dense pop. On small island led to food struggle and social strife
 * Ex. Easter island, from 1100-1500 had 10k people, not enough food led to divided camps and brutal massacres for resources, even cannibalism as society disintegrated
 * Nan Madol
 * Over pop. Could also lead to social organization, Pohnpeiin Caroline islands & the Sandeleur dynasty built powerful state =stone palace at Nan Madol (1200-1600)
 * Large pop. Led to specialized workers, farming, fishing, axes, canoe making
 * Social classes of high chiefs, lesser chiefs and commoners
 * Hawai’i also had classes of priest and skilled artisans ranking between chiefs + commoners
 * Chiefs oversaw their island and sometimes surrounding islands
 * Worked to conquer other islands and make centralized rule
 * Allowed families to land, made labor projects, and military force
 * Very respected
 * Ex. Hawaii’s Ali’I nui- high chiefs, intermarried and the best, wore the best that were kapu ( taboo) to commoners < couldn’t cast shadow on chief>
 * Chiefs worked with priest, gods of war and agr. But also local gods
 * Had Marae- temples, had walls to designate sacred place, made of stone of coral
 * In Tonga/Samoa, temples of timber + thatched roofs for worship, sacrifice + communication to gods
 * In E Polynesian, open air platforms ,
 * largest marae Mahaiate on Tahiti, pyramid 15ft high
 * || Americas ||
 * high point of the toltec empire ||
 * Collapse of the Toltec empire ||
 * INca settlement near Cuzco ||
 * Foundation of Tenochtitlan by Mexica ||
 * Emergence of the five Iroquois nations ||
 * Reign of the Aztec ruler itzcoatl ||
 * = Reign of the Inca ruler Pachacuti ||
 * Rign of the Axtec ruler Motecuzoma 1 ||
 * Rign of the Axtec ruler Motecuzoma 2 ||
 * Arrival of Spanish conqueror in Mexia ||

=__Themes__= __1) Economics and Politics__ __2) Technology and Environmental Adaptions__ __3) Social and Gender Advancements__ __4) Cultural and Intellectual Developments__ __5) The Effectiveness of the State__
 * Mexica had no permanent army
 * because of dry climate they would have to tap into canals
 * learned to adapt to whatever environment they went to
 * used waterways to advantage for trading
 * spread dif. foods better suited to varying climates
 * had social classes very similar to the ones we have already learned about
 * ruling elites, priest, sometims specialized artisans, commoner, slaves
 * slaves were from captured in battlefield or sold into slavery
 * Mexica adopted calendars and games from Mayans
 * Inca developed dif. gods from nature
 * aboriginies connected natural surroundings into spirts/dietys
 * cheifs oversaw their islands and sometimes surrounding islands
 * inca were able to record history and what regions owed without written laugage
 * Incas had smaller pop. than the people they rules but instilled obedience

__THEMES FOR THE AMERICAS AND OCEANIA__
__Economics and Politics__ Mochica
 * No military evidence in Teotihuacan society until 500 C.E
 * early cities did not have an established state or any organized political power during the Chavin Cult
 * each region high/low contributed its own products to the larger economy
 * relied heavily on arms to introduce order and maintain stability in their small realms
 * did not have writing but a system of paintings depicting its society
 * first millennium B.C.E. Lapita and Austronesian peoples established hierarchical chiefdom on the pacific islands
 * Soon chiefly classes became too powerful
 * Lapita Peoples maintained communication and an exchange network from New guinea to Sanoa/Tonga

__Technology and Environmental adaptation__
 * Earliest settlers in the valley of Mexico did not build extensive irrigation systems, but they did channel water from the mountains
 * Austronesian peoples used winds, currents, stars, cloud formations, and other natural indicators to navigate
 * brought yams, taros, pigs, and chickens to the island to cultivate and herd
 * canoes enables them to sail safely large distances of open sea
 * Lapita Peoples killed off the large land animals and birds

__Social and Gender Advancements__

__Cultural and Intellectual developments__ Teotihuacan peoples Mochica
 * played a ball game
 * adapted Olmec calendar
 * expanded Olmecs graphic symbols into a complete system of writing (stone carving)
 * recognized gods of Earth and Rain
 * human sacrifices during their religious rituals
 * Priests were viewed as deities and as a crucial role to the survival of the society
 * did not have writing but a system of painting depicting its society
 * Human migrants used watercraft about 60,000 Years ago to enter Australia and New Guinea
 * Australians created 124 different types of medicines from pants
 * Austronesian people used winds, currents, stars, cloud formations, and other natural indicators to navigate

__The Effectiveness of the state__
 * Andean states were effective by using military power to maintain order contribute products for the greater good of the larger economy
 * the "states" of Australia and New guinea were ineffective due to constant migration of peoples and classical techniques used for agriculture and cultivation
 * Teotihuacans did have an effective state because they made it to 500 C.E without evidence of a military organization