The+Americas+and+Oceania

Early Societies in the Americas and Oceana (H.M)
In September of 683 C.E., a man named Chan Bahlum and his brother performed rituals which caused a large flow of blood from their bodies. These sorts of rituals were common among the people of the Mayan city Palenque. These rituals were often done as political and religious acts. They believed in shedding royal blood whenever a member of the royal family died, like Chan Bahlum's father Pacal. Many Mesoamerican people performed these sorts of rituals sometimes in the earlobes, lips, and cheeks with obsidian knives, animal bones, or sting ray spines. These Mayan people believed that performing these rituals had to do with how much rain they recieved and how good their agriculture was for the year. Once the glaciers melted when the temperature of the Earth rose, massive flooding occurred which caused asia and america to be separated. Before this happened, many areas of the world were connected like Australia and New Ginea and the Indonesian Islands. However, the high waters didn't stop humans from migrating. Soon, humans were living in Central America and Oceania. In these areas, large and populous City-States were born.

Early Societies of Mesoamerica and the Olmecs
In about 13,000 B.C.E, a huge migration of people went from Siberia to Alaska over the land bridge that was there at that time. Some of them may have come by watercraft as well after the land bridge had been covered. By 9500 B.C.E, the people had already made it to south america which was over 10,000 miles from the land bridge. By 7000 B.C.E, these early South American peoples had begun to experiment in agriculture involving beans, chilis, and avocados. Eventually they also added tomatoes and squash. By the end of the second millennium B.C.E, they had started building large ceremonial temples and pyramids. Priests and elite among the villages lived in these ceremonial centers and enjoyed a lavish lifestyle. The first people to build these large centers were the Olmecs which means "rubber people" because of the rubber trees grown in the region. the first Olmec ceremonial center is located in modern day San Lorenzo and was built around 1200 B.C.E. It was the capital of the Olmec civilization for almost 400 years. The society of the Olmecs was most likely authoritarian because of all the laborers who worked in these ceremonial centers. They also cared much for the art at these centers. One of the most impressive feats of the Olmec Civilization were the creation of huge human heads that were each at least 10 feet tall and weighed 20 tons. They were made out of basalt rock and required about a thousand laborers to build them. Slowly but surely, the Olmecs began to spread their influence through much of Central America. Partly by military force, but also by trading jade and other precious art with each other. One of the greatest mysteries about the Olmec peoples is their decline. Systematically, the Olmecs destroyed their cultural centers and buried and broke many statues and defaced monuments. Although it is possible invaders may have done this, many scholars believe the Olmecs did this to themselves. Possibly because of a Civil War. However, later Mesoamericans practiced the same traditions as the Olmecs before them. Maya Society and Religion In Maya society, a large class of priests maintained an elaborat calender and transmitted knowledge of writing, astronomy, and mathematics. The nobles, which was hereditary, owned most land and cooperated with the kings and priests by organizing military and participating in religious ceremonies. Maya society not only were perceived as traders, but ambassadors to neighboring lands. They traded mosty exotic and luxury goods; these included rare animal skins, cacao beans, and finely crafted works of art. Apart from the rulers and priests, there were professional architects and sculptors who oversaw construction of large monuments and public buildings. There were also large classes of peasants and slaves which fed the society and provided physical labor for city and monumental construction. The Maya further built off of the Olmec culture. Maya priests studied astronomy and math, which in turn made the elaborate calender. They also invented the concept of zero and used a symbol to represent it. By combining astronomical observations and mathematical reasoning, Maya priests calculated the length of one solar year at 365.242 days. This figure is 17 seconds shorter then our current approximation reached by modern astronomers. The elaborate calender in which they configured included two kinds of years. The first being the solar year, and the second was the ritual year of 260 days. They figured each day combined attributes which would determine the fortune of excercised activities. The priests then tried all the combinations of a day, 18,980 to be exact, and studied each precise combination hoping to determine which activities were safe and which ones weren't. The Mayas believe that and the end of a cycle would bring monumental change and ultimately the world would end. They also created the most sophisticated, but flexible systems of writing in the early Americas. Maya script contained ideographic elements and symbols for syllables. Scribes wrote works of history, poetry, and myth. They also kept genealogical, administrative, and astronomical records. Today only 4 books of ancient Maya survive, all dealing with astronomy and calendrical matters. Surviving inscriptions shed light on the Popul Vuh, a religious Maya creation myth which taught that the gods had created humans from maize and water. This religion reflected how agriculture was key in there society. Priests also taught that the gods kept the agricultural cycle going in exchange for the shedding of human blood. Bloodletting rituals were believed to prompt the gods to send rain for their crops. Some of these rituals were centered on war captives. The voluntary shedding of royal blood testifies to how much the Mayas honored their deities. A game that partook in Maya society was called the Maya ball game. Players in this were always men in teams of 2 to 4. The objective was to send the ball through a ring without the use of hands. The importance of this game was shown by how it was sometimes played to decide who was to be sacrificed and face torture. Overall you can see how the game reflected sporting, gambling, and relgious significance. (S.N.)

Heirs of the Olmecs: Teotihuacan The valley of central Mexico was the site of several large lakes fed by the waters coming off the surrounding mountains. These lakes have disappeared over time but their supplies of fish and waterfowl attracted human settlers. There was no need for irrigation systems because they channeled the water from the mountains to their fields. This lead to an expanding complex society with Teotihuacan as it's capitol. By 200 BCE it reached a population of 50,000. In 100 CE they had two monuments: The pyramids of the Sun and Moon. The pyramid of the Sun was the largest in all of Mesoamerica. With no official records of writings, the priests were crucial to society, for they held high powers as depicted in paintings. There were artisans, cultivators, and merchants. Artisans were famous for their makings of tools. Merchants show that there was a lot of trade throughout Mesoamerica. There was no official military until 500 CE, because they focused on their ability to produce fine manufactured goods for distant markets. It was built on the cultural foundations established by the Olmecs. They adapted the Olmec calendar for their own uses, and turned Olmec symbols into their own form of writing. They even had human sacrifices (awesome). They started seeing a decline in things in 650 CE, then in the mid eighth century invaders destroyed the city.

EARLY SOCIETY OF SOUTH AMERICA Hunting and Gathering peoples made their way to South America 12,000 BCE. In 8,000 BCE climate changes changed the region into a warm and dry one, putting pressure on natural food supplies. The people started experimenting with agriculture, thus leading to an increased human population, building villages, cities, states, and traditions. After 1000 BCE, they generated complex societies parallel to those of Mesoamerica.

Early Andean Society and the Chavin Cult The early Andean society developed independently, like Mesoamerica, but neither had what is needed to do long distance trade with one another. Mesoamerican maize and squashes spread to the Andes, while their gold, silver, and copper metallurgy spread to Mesoamerica. There was not much communication in the Andes due to many deep valleys, however powerful Andean states overcame the difficulties by going to places like Ecuador and Columbia.. Permanent settlements started between 2500 to 2000 BCE, especially in the coastal regions. The Chavin Cult was a popular religion through 900- 800 BCE in the Peru territory. It disappeared in 300 BCE with no official facts on it. One theory is that they came about with the coming of maize, making deities to promote fertility and a healthy harvest. During the time of the cult, society became more complex with intricate clithing designs and metallurgy for jewelry and copper tools. Once the cult disappeared, large cities like Tihuanico appeared.

Early Andean states: Mochica Early states arose when conquerors unified individual valleys and organized them into integrated societies. The Andean states supported low lands with irrigation systems and tied highlands, central valleys and coastal regions with a trade system. Andean states relied heavily on arms to introduce order and maintain stability in their small realms. The Mochica state had it's base in the valley of the Moche River, dominating coasts from 300 to 700 CE. They had ceramics that took form of the heads of Gods or people. Some depict everyday life for us, since no writings survive to this day. Mochica, being one of the several large states in the Andean region, none of which were able to impose order on the entirety of the region due to geographical barriers.

DEARLY SOCIETIES IN AUSTRALIA AND NEW GUINEA The first migrants entered Australia and New Guinea about 58,000 years ago on canoes fitted with sails. 5,000 years ago people started coming to the northern part of New Guinea for trading reasons.

Early Societies in Australia and New Guinea The first inhabitants were hunter and gatherers. They would travel for thousands of years between Australia and New Guinea until about 10,000 years ago, when sea levels divided the two lands. Aboriginal Australians stuck with their hunting ways until the 19th and 20th centuries when European settlers came about, whilst New Guineans turned to agriculture. The Aborigines lived in small mobile communities, scavenging for plants to use for spices, food, and medicine. They used axes, spears, clubs, and of course boomerangs to hunt animals like rats and kangaroos. The early inhabitants of New Guinea also scavenged for food. About 5,000 years ago, the Austronesian speaking peoples started trading with the indigenous people and started communities. These Austronesian speaking seafarers introduced yams, taro, pigs, and chickens to the islands, leading to the spread of agriculture throughout New Guinea.

The Peopling of the Pacific Islands New Guineans didn't have the technology to travel to the distant islands in the Pacific Ocean. The Austronesian speakers, on the other hand, established human settlements on islands throughout the Pacific Ocean with their outrigger canoes, which helped them travel safely over long distances. By 1500 BCE, they had started going on long distance ventures to places like Vanautu, and by 700 BCE they had ventured as far as Hawai'i and New Zealand. The first Austronesian migrants to sail out in the Pacific and settle were known as the Lapitas. They established agricultural villages wherever they went, then once all resources killed off, they moved on to other lands leaving obvious traces behind, which is how we know about them today. For about one thousand years, the Lapita peoples set up extensive trade networks across the ocean, with pottery and obsidian as their principle items to trade.

States and Empires in Mesoamerica and North America The Toltecs and the Mexica After the collapse of Teotihuacan, several regional states dominated portions of high central valley of Mexico in the ninth and tenth centuries. These successor states fought viciously even though they shared cultural traditions of there founders. Finally the Toltecs emerge unifying much of central Mexico. The Toltecs made Tula there capital city and the center of trade. Tula became a wealthy city where residents live in spacious adobe, stone, or mud households. Tula became an important center of weaving, pottery, and obsidian. The residents also imported large amounts of jade, turquoise, animal skins, exotic bird feathers, and other luxury items. The Toltecs maintained close relations with societies of the Gulf Coast and the Maya civilization. Beginning at about 1125 B.C.E., the empire started its decline caused by conflicts between ethnic groups. The bringing of nomadic intrusion along with civil strife led to the Toltec downfall. By about the 12th century, the Toltecs no longer dominated Mesoamerica. Coming from the northwestern region was a migrant group under the name of the Mexica; also known as the Aztecs. They arrived in central Mexico in the mid 13th century, stealing pre-cultivated land from others and abducting their women. For a century the Mexica migrated throughout central Mexico fighting with other peoples and sometimes surviving on fly eggs and snakes alone. The Aztecs settled on land around Lake Texeco and built their future capital city there, Tenochtitlan. The lake enabled the inhabiting peoples to develop the chinampa system of agriculture. In this technique, the farmers would dredge rich and fertile muck from the bottom of the lake and place it in piles called chinampas. These were so fertile they could sometimes harvest seven crops per year. By the early 15th century, the Aztecs were sending powerufl military campaigns overtaking their neighbors. From here the Aztecs conquered the Oaxaco in southwestern Mexico and colonized it. The Mexica then made an alliance with the Texcoco and the Tlacopan. With these two powerful alliances, the Aztecs created a vast empire, controlling their subjects with oppressive tribute obligations. The Aztec empire had no bureaucracy or administration. Instead they had the conquered peoples asses tribute with a local governance. The conquered subjects then sent in tribute. The allies had no standing army acutally, but rather assembled the forces when needed. At the high point of the Aztec empire, they had a tribute of 489 subject territoris which flowed in Tenochtitlan. (S.N.)

Mexica Society The most information comes from Spanish sources in which conquered the once great Aztec empire. After they conquered the empire they recorded information about what once went on during the times of the Mexica. Aztec warriors, jaguars or eagles, were the elite and at the top of a rigid social heirarchy. The warriors enjoyed great wealth, honor, and privileges; such as eating the finest foods and wear brightly colored capes after they captured an enemy during battle. Most of the warriors came from Mexica aristocracy. Aztec women had no public role what so ever, but were honored as mothers of warriors. The women were active in commerce and crafts, and the primary purpose of the women during these times were to bear children. Women who died during childbirth were celebrated and honored. Also among the Mexica elite were the priests who read omens, presided over rituals, and monitored ritual calender. Also the priests were advisers to the Mexica rulers, and occasionally became supreme rulers. Most of the Aztec populatino were either cultivators or slaves. The cultivators worked on the chinampas or on aristocrats' land. They also paid tribute and provided labor services for public works. A large number of slaves worked as domestic servants. Artisans and merchants also enjoyed prestige. Artisans during these times were valued for skill work, especially luxury items. Trade between merchants was very risky, but could turn out very profitable. (S.N.)

Mexica Religion Mexica religion played the biggest part in ancient Aztec times. Mexica deites were adopted from previoius Mesoamerican cultures. Some of these cultures included the Tezcatlipoca and the Quetzalcoatl. Ritual bloodletting would be very commonly seen in Aztec society. It was recognized by all Mesoamericans. The Mexica sacrificed large amounts of people to their patron deity Huitzilopochtli. The bloodletting was to show devotion to their deities. (S.N.)

Peoples and Societies of the North The Pueblo and Navajo were large settled socities in the American southwest which developed a rich vartiety of political, social, and cultural traditions. By about the 8th century, these two civilizations were building stone and adobe buildings. Another large scale agricultural society emerged in the woodlands east of the Mississippi River. These people were the Iriquois. they lived in settled communities and often surrounded their larger settlements with wooden palisades, which served as defensive walls. By about 1400, the Owasco people banded together to form the 5 Iriquois nations. In these socities, women were in charge of the longhouses and the cultivation of their fields. The men were responsible to the outside affairs such as hunting, fishing, and war. Another group in North America were the mound building peoples of the east who built enormous earthen mounds from ceremonies and burials. The largest mound built was the mound at Cahokia, Illinois. Fifteen thousand to thirty eight thousand people lived in Cahokia society during the 12th century. No written recored survive about the burial sites which reveal the existence of social classes and trade. (S.N.)

=States and Empires in South America =

South American people had no script or writing before spanish conquerors arrived. Thus the activities and interactions between them and others are difficult to know. From 1000-1500 C.E. cities began to outshadow ceremonial centers and priestly regimes and by the end of this period, the Incas had built a powerful state and extended their authorit over a very large region. (L.K.

The Coming of the Incas Regional states in the Andean south america frequently classed but rarely did any group actually gain an advantage over one another. Chucuito and Chimu are two of the most well know groups of the region during this time of disunity. Llamas and alpachas, the only large game in S America, provided many goods for the people, also coca leaves provided a mild stimulant for the workers. When pressed, the coca leaves are much more dangerous and addictive, cocaine. The Inca people settled around Lake Titicaca around the midthirteenth century. The Inca ruler Pachacuti was unsatisfied by being one of many and set about a militatry campaign against others. By the late fifteenth century, the incas had built the empire to stretch from Quito to Santiago. The Incas ruled as a military and administrative elite. They put down rebellion by taking prisoners and by filling towns with colonists. The bureaucratic people relied on the quipo to keep track of responibilities. The quipo consisted of many pieces of cords, knots and colors to relay information. The Incas are still known for the road system. Two roads linked the inca north and the south. The roads allowed for ideas and beliefs of people to spread and travel quickly and easily.

<span style="color: #ff0000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Inca society and Religiont <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The inca society did not have a large class of merchants, artisans, or other skilled workers. This is because of the fact that the government controlled any long distance trade. So any craft person could only sell in his immediate area. In the absence of a market economy, there was no opportunity for a large class of professional, skilled artisans to emerge. However, many did produce the necessities, there just was no exchange of goods on anywhere close to a large scale. The incas believed that their ruler was a deity descended from the sun god, thus this ruler owned everything, the land, the people, and any property. Cultivators of common birth lived together in communities known as ayllu, which were the basic units of rural society. The cult of the sun quickly became the main religion of the empire after its beginnings. this and other cult used sacrifice of animals as a way to honor their gods.

=<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The societies of Oceania = <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Interaction between the people of Oceania occurred with less frequency than other areas because of the extreme difficulty because of the vast distance of ocean between them.

<span style="color: #ff0000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The nomadic foragers of Australia <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The Aboriginal people of Australia learned how to exploit their sometimes barren landscape and their way of life hasn't changed much at all over time. They did not turn to agriculture but instead continued on their hunting and gathering way of life. The aboriginal people focused heavily on their environment and this affected their interests, stories/myths, and the focus of the group. Because of their nomadic lifestyle different groups met often, but they didn't intermix because of the large differences each group possessed. Traded goods did not travel by long distance trade market but exchange from group to group as the met.

<span style="color: #ff0000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The development of Pacific Island Societies <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Trade between the Islands in the pacific did not interact much because of the difficult commute. However, between clusters of islands, trade of goods flourished. About 700 C.E. these polynesians traveled to the S America coast and brought back potatoes. Potatoes quickly became a staple on almost every island in the Pacific. About 1400 when the Hawaiian population increased, they construted fishponds that allowed small fish to swim in but large fish could not leave. This provided the people with an abundant source and allowed them to harvest it with relative ease. Dense populations sometimes lead to enveironmental degradation adn social strife on islands with limited resources. Easter Island is one example of this. When the population exceeded the island production, war led to many dead and even more hungry until human life on the island was practically nonexistant. On other islands large populations led to sharp social distinctions. Ruling chiefs oversaw public affairs of their area of influence. Many chiefs lead military campaigns on others until the difficulty of what they wished to achieve was realized. The most distinctive architecture of the societies were ceremonial precincts and temple structures known as marae. They were often multiple terraced floors and indicated boundaries of sacred space.(L.K.)
 * || Americas ||
 * 13,000 B.C.E || Human Migration to North America. ||
 * 8000-7000 B.C.E || Origins of Agriculture in Mesoamerica. ||
 * 1200-100 B.C.E || Olmec Society ||
 * 1000-300 B.C.E || Chavin Cult ||
 * 20 B.C.E -750 C.E || Teotihuacan society ||
 * 300-1100 C.E || Maya society ||
 * 300-700 C.E. || Mohica Society ||
 * 950-1150 C.E. || High point of Toltec Empire ||
 * 1175 || Collapse of Toltec Empire ||
 * 1250 || Inca settlement by Cuzco ||
 * 1345 || Tenochtitlan by the Mexica ||
 * 1400 || Five Iroquis nations ||
 * 1428-1440 || Aztec ruler Itzcoatl ||
 * 1438-1471 || Inca ruler Pachacuti ||
 * 1440-1469 || Aztec ruler Motecuzoma I ||
 * 1502-1520 || Aztec ruler Motecuzoma II ||
 * 1519 || Arrival of Spanish conquerors ||
 * || Oceania ||
 * 60,000 B.C.E || Human migration to Australia and New Guinea ||
 * 3000 B.C.E || Origins of agriculture in New Guinea ||
 * 1500-500 B.C.E || Lapita society ||
 * 1500-700 C.E. || Migrations to Pacific Islands ||
 * 1100 || Population growth in Pacific Islands ||
 * 1200 || two way voyages between Hawaii, Tahiti and the Marquesas Islands ||
 * 1300 || Emergence of Social classes and chiefly states ||
 * 1400 || Construction of fishponds ||
 * || (L.K.) ||
 * || (L.K.) ||