After+Independence+-+Long-Term+Struggles+in+the+Postcolonial+Era+2

After Independence - Long-Term Struggles in the Postcolonial Era = = __ Communism and Democracy in Asia - 1113-1116 __

-Under Mao Zedong (1893-1976), China was an inspiration to countries who wanted means of political development

__Mao’s Dynasty__

-Mao reunited China for the first time sing the Qing dynasty

-Transforms European communism into Chinese communism

-After 1949, Mao made programs to develop China and distinguish Chinese communism from Soviet communism

-The Great Leap Forward (1958) and the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution (1966-1976) were policies that hampered the development that Mao was working for.

-Mao thought the Great Leap Forward would allow him to overtake industrial production of developed nations

-It failed. It was then known as The Giant Step Backward

-It had a bad effect on agriculture and resulted in bad harvests and a terrible famine

-Mao blamed to sparrows for bad harvests and ordered peasants to kill the birds which allowed the insects to eat what was left of the crops

-1959-1962 approximately 20 million Chinese died of starvation

__The Cultural Revolution__

- 1966 Mao tried to reignite the revolutionary spirit with the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution

- Designed out to root out revisionism among political figures

- Led to humiliation, persecution, and death for millions

- The elite class was targeted by Red Guards, who were supposed to get rid of Mao’s opponents

- Victims were beaten, jailed, and sent to labor camps or left in the countryside to die

- The Cultural Revolution cost China years of development and gutted its educational system

- This did not die down until Mao died in 1976

- Deng Xiaoping (1904-1997) rebuilt the nation

__Deng’s Revolution__

- Deng suffered the same fate as millions during the revolution

- He labored in tractor-repair factory

- Deng came to power in 1981, the 80’s were referred to as “Deng’s Revolution”

- Deng moderated Mao’s commitment to self-sufficiency and isolation

- Helped China into financial and trading systems that made relations between them and the USA normal

__Tiananmen__

- Deng sent thousands of Chinese students to foreign universities to rebuild professional, intellectual, and managerial elite for modern development

- These students were exposed to democratic societies

- They staged pro-democracy demonstrations in Tiananmen square in 1989

- Deng faced hostile world opinion after getting rid of student program

__Indian Democracy__

- Nehru's daughter Indira Gandhi was prime minister of India, 1966-1977, 1980-1984

- "Green revolution" dramatically increased agricultural yields

- Adopted harsh policy of birth control: involuntary sterilization; voted out in 1977

- Reelected in 1980, but faced strong opposition from religious and ethnic groups

- Crushed uprising of Sikhs; was assassinated by her Sikh bodyguards in 1984

- Her son Rajiv Gandhi was elected in 1985, but was assassinated in 1991 = = = Islamic Resurgence in Southwest Asia and North Africa DH = -Geographic convergence of arab and muslims in SW Asia and N Africa creates Arab nationalism -Arab nationalism led by Gamal Abdel Nasser __ Muslim Revival and Arab Disunity __ -Pan-Arab unity does not materialize -SW Asia: Israel in midst of Islamic states -Anwar Sadat (1918-81)... makes surprise attack called Yom Kippur on Israel > Led making of peace treaties __Islamism__ -Revival of Islamic ideas and power -Extremists used //Jjihad--// to defend Islam from unjust attack, to legitimize terrorism and revolution __The Iranian Revolution__ -Lots of money coming to Iran from the US purchasing oil and providing weapons -Shah leaves, revolutionaries in power -Led by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeni -Iraq tries to take advantage of Iranian unrest and starts a war __The Iraq-Iran War__ -One Million die -Revolution kills thousands -After defeating Iran, Iraqis invade Kuwait and incite Gulf War (1991) -9/11, Then US invades Iraq in 2003 to destroy Hussein's weapons of mass destruction
 * Shared common language and religion, but alliances shifted often
 * Cold War splits them further > Some side with US, others with Soviet Union
 * Sunni and Shia Muslims had differing theologies
 * Many ally with Soviet Union, US allies with Israel
 * Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) sought to promote Palestinian rights and make peace with Israelis
 * Strong dislike for the US
 * people don't like US's large economic influence
 * Anti-US
 * Capture 69 US hostages from the US Embassy
 * Iranian leaders shut down military bases, confiscate US-owned economic ventures
 * terrorist actions upon the US
 * Iraq led by Saddam Hussein invade
 * Hussein wants to lead pan-Arab nationalism
 * Descisive US military defeat
 * __Hussein captured in 2003__

__// Politics and Economics in Latin America (page 1119-1123) //__
__Mexico__

-President Lazaro Cardenas brought land reform and redistribution to a peak in Mexico by applying reforms guaranteed by the Constitution in 1917 -conservative government controlled by the one-party rule of Institutional Revolutionary Party (IRP) often acted harshly and experimented with various economic strategies that decreased or increased Mexico's dependence on foreign markets and capital -Mexican peasants in Chiapas district protested the PRI in 1990s -opposition party led by presidents son called Democratic Revolutionary Party (DRP)
 * returned 45 million acres to peasants
 * took control of oil industry away from foreign investors

__Argentina__

-had expansive economy based on cattle raising and agriculture, huge urban life, beginnings of industrial base, and a growing middle class -population made up of mostly of migrants from Europe -remained independent of US control -became leader in Latin American struggle against US and European economic and political intervention in the region -gradual shift to free elections -became a model of a less positive form of political organization: often brutal and deadly sway of military rulers

__Juan Peron__

-former colonel in Argentine army, was elected President in 1946 -regime gained great popularity among a lot of the Argentine population because he appealed to downtrodden Argentines promoted nationalistic populism, calling for industrialization, support of the working class, and protection of the economy from foreign control

__Evita__

-means "little Eva" -Peron's wife who helped foster husband's popularity -was a very poor, illegitimate child who migrated to Buenos Arires at 15 -worked as radio soap-opera actress -met Peron in 1944 and married shortly after -was Argentina's First Lady from 1946-1952 -ministered to needs of the poor who formed her husband's supporters -died of uterine cancer at age 33 -nation mourned the death of "Santa Evita" -grasping social climber and fascist sympathizer

__Guatemala and Nicaragua__ -brutal military dictators held office for next 3 decades after Peron left -military took sinister turn in later 1970s when creation of death squads occured -6000 and 23000 people disappeared between 1976 and 1983 -calls for return to democratic politics increased -establishment of communist and socialist regimes in Central and South America- or instigation of programs and policies that hinted of progressive liberalism or anti-Americanism- regularly provoked a response from the US -Latin America had become the site of fully 40% of US foreign investments -in 1953 current Guatemala president, Jacobo Arbenz Guzman, announced a government seizure of thousands of acres of uncultivated land owned by the United Fruit Company, a private enterprise contolled mainly by US investors, because he wanted to regain control over economy and its lands for redistribution to peasants, offered compensation to US -US found amount insufficient and also believed that Arbenz policies were communist inspired -CIA engineered overthrow of Arbenz and armed Colonel Castillo Armas -Guatemala: destabilized -Cold war shaped U.S. policies in Central America -Castillo Armas established brutal military dictatorship; was assassinated, 1957 -Nicaragua: American interference -Somoza regime (1934-1980), brutal dictators but anticommunist U.S. ally, allowed US to use Nicaragua as a staging place during the Bay of Pigs attacks on Cuba in 1961 -Overthrown by Marxist Sandinistas in 1980 -Carter administration did not interfere, they wanted to pursue more autonomy or progressive and even socialist goals -Carter withdrew US military and economic aid from Somoza until he fled the country, and then US offered helped to new Sandinista government -this led to withdrawal of US support for Latin American dictators and restored Panama Canal to Panama -Reagan reversed policy; supported Contras, rebels opposed to the Sandinistas -Costa Rican president negotiated end to Contra war, new coalition government -Patterns of economic dependence in Latin America -Need to reorient economies from export to internal development -Raul Prebisch, Argentine economist, crafted theory of "economic dependency" -developed nations controlled world economy at expense of undeveloped ones -developing nations needed to protect domestic industries

=__//**War and Peace in Sub-Saharan Africa (pg. 1123-1127)**//__= -optimism that arose in Africa after WWII faded over time; there seemed little prospect for widespread political stability in sub-Saharan Africa -civilians who were running the new independent states were replaced by military leaders -Europeans had carved African in territories whose boundaries did not correspond with the ethnicity and economic divisions that were already in place; this made it hard to achieve national unity because of the many conflicts between ethnic groups within the states. -Most African people lived poorly which increased tensions and made the absence of adequate administration and welfare programs more glaring __**The Aftermath of Decolonization**__ -The Organization of African Unity (OAU), created in 1963 by 32 member states, recognized some of theses problems and attempted to prevent conflicts that could lead to intervention by former colonial powers -OAU could do nothing about the new artificial boundaries in Africa and so African Nations have been unable to avoid internal conflicts -In Ghana and other sub-Saharan states, politics evolved into dictatorial one party rule; several African nations fell prey to military rule; South Africa managed in part to solve its political crisis and discord, providing a model for multiethnic African transformation even as ethnic violence flared __**South Africa**__ - presence of large numbers of white settlers delayed the arrival of black freedom - South African faced struggles against internal colonialism against an oppressive white regime that denied basic human and civil rights to blacks even though South Africa's black population was much larger __**Apartheid**__ -whites resisted majority rule in the South African economy because of 2 sources; extraction of minerals and industrial development -the growth of the industrial sector opened many jobs to blacks, creating the possibility of a change in their status which struck fear into the white South Africans -the Afrikaner National Party developed in 1948 came to power to squash any move toward black independence; they instituted a new harsh set of laws designed to control the restive black population- these laws were called apartheid or "separateness" -apartheid asserted white supremacy and institutionalized the racial segregation established in the years before 1948, it was designed to keep blacks in a positions of political, social, and economic subordination -the government gave 87% of South African lands to white residents and remaining land was a homeland for colored people -The African Nations Congress (ANC) formed in 1912 gained new leaders to protest against apartheid. ANC published Freedom Charter, a book that directly challenged white rule. The government declared all of its opponents communists -protests increased in 1960 (the year of Africa). On March 21,1960, white police gunned down black demonstrators killing 69 blacks and wounding 200 -whites soon banned black organizations like the ANC and jailed their leaders for life, this made blacks protesting increase through the 1970s and 80s -the protesting eventually led to reform and a growing recognition that if it was to survive, South Africa had to change __**The End of Apartheid**__ -when F.W. de Klerk became president of South African in 1989, hand the National Party began to dismantle the apartheid system; he freed the ANC leaders and legalized the ANC. - while working together, they created a new constitution and held an election in 1994 that were open to people of all races and Nelson Mandela became the first black president of South Africa and proclaimed that nation "free at last" __**The Democratic Republic of the Congo**__ -outside of South Africa, stability remained difficult to achieve, like in the Congo -Mobutu Sese Seko took power in 1960 and ruled in a dictatorial fashion using his power to amass personal fortunes for himself, his family, and his allies, this devastated the economy -Mobutu was ousted in 1997 by Laurent Kabila. Kabila wanted stability which meant that he had vast personal power for himself as president, head of military, and head of state. A year later came under attack by rebels in the Congo and was killed, leaving his son Joseph in charge. __**Developing Economies**__ -Most African Nations are less developed countries and has the worlds highest number of low income states -Africa has 10 percent of world's population but less than 1 percent of industrial output -Rich in minerals, raw materials, agricultural resources but lacks the capital, technology, foreign markets, and managerial class -Africa's burdens are complicated by agriculture production not keeping up with the rapid population growth, droughts, and famine -Nevertheless, African states have continue to attempt a wider integration into the global economy